The theory of disruptive innovation formulated by Clayton Christensen is based on a precise mechanism: an entrant targets the low end of the market or an ignored segment, then gradually moves up the value chain to displace dominant players. This mechanism is often misunderstood today, frequently confused with any form of radical or technological innovation. We observe that the majority of uses of the term “disruption” in managerial discourse do not correspond to the original criteria of the theory.
Sustaining innovation: the true opposite of disruption according to Christensen
The opposite of disruptive innovation is not incremental innovation. It is sustaining innovation. The confusion between the two often skews strategic analyses.
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Incremental innovation improves an existing product through successive small enhancements. Sustaining innovation, on the other hand, can be radical in technological terms while reinforcing the position of existing players. It better meets the expectations of existing customers based on the performance criteria they already value.
A processor that is twice as fast aimed at the same professional segments falls under sustaining innovation, even if the technological leap is considerable. Conversely, a less powerful processor that is sufficient for an emerging market (low-cost smartphones, connected objects) can trigger a disruptive dynamic. As detailed by disruptive innovation according to Info Entreprises, it is the market trajectory that distinguishes the two categories, not the magnitude of the technological leap.
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This distinction has a direct consequence for decision-makers: investing heavily in R&D does not protect against disruption if the investments only target current customers and their usual performance criteria.
Criteria for qualifying disruptive innovation: beyond the buzzword
Recent academic literature points to a crisis in the use of the concept. The word “disruptive” has become a marketing label applied to any somewhat visible novelty. Christensen himself identified specific criteria that we can summarize as follows:
- The entrant offers a product or service that is initially inferior on the dominant market criteria (raw performance, features) but superior on a neglected axis (price, simplicity, accessibility).
- Historical customers of the market are not interested in the disruptive product at its launch, allowing the entrant to progress without triggering a defensive reaction.
- The trajectory of improvement of the disruptive product eventually reaches a level of performance sufficient to attract mainstream segments, at which point incumbents lose their market shares.
If any of these three criteria are missing, it is not disruption in the strict sense. A product that arrives directly in the premium segment with superior technology falls under sustaining innovation, even if it redistributes the cards.
Disruption from below and market-creating disruption
Christensen distinguished two trajectories. Disruption from below targets over-served customers: those for whom the dominant product offers more than they need, at too high a price. Market-creating disruption targets non-consumers, people who had no access to any offer due to lack of means or skills.
These two trajectories do not produce the same strategic responses. In the face of disruption from below, an incumbent can react by segmenting its offer. In the face of market creation, the threat remains invisible for longer, as the internal metrics of the dominant company do not capture a segment it has never addressed.
Disruption indicators in scientific research: a contested tool
Researchers have attempted to quantify disruption using bibliometric indices that measure whether a scientific article breaks with previous work or continues in its trajectory. The idea seemed promising for guiding innovation policies and directing funding.
A 2024 study challenges this approach. Its authors show that the most commonly used disruption index does not actually measure innovation and leads to erroneous interpretations. The observed correlations reflect more citation effects than conceptual breaks. The authors’ recommendation is clear: do not use this index as is to guide research funding decisions.
This finding illustrates a broader problem. Disruption is a phenomenon that is observed a posteriori, once the market trajectory is completed. Attempting to measure it in real time or predict it based on static indicators confuses cause and effect.
Applied disruptive innovation: what classic examples reveal and obscure
The often-cited cases (music streaming versus CDs, ride-hailing platforms versus taxis) have become clichés that simplify the real mechanics. Music streaming, for example, initially offered lower audio quality than CDs, a limited catalog, and a freemium model. It targeted casual listeners that the music industry considered unprofitable.
What these examples obscure is the time required. A disruption often takes a decade or more to fully deploy. The initial phase where the product seems harmless to leaders can last several years. Incumbents who react late are not lacking in insight: their cost structure and commitments to their best customers make reorientation structurally difficult.
Differentiating disruption from technological substitution
Not every substitution of one technology for another constitutes disruption. Replacing an internal combustion engine with an electric engine in the same premium vehicle segment remains sustaining innovation if the target customer and the valued performance criteria do not change. Disruption implies a shift in the customer base, not just a change in component.
We recommend that strategy teams systematically test three questions before qualifying a phenomenon as disruptive: does the product target a neglected or over-served segment? Do incumbents have a rational reason to ignore it in the short term? Can the trajectory of improvement reach the mainstream? Without affirmative answers to all three, the term “disruption” is likely inappropriate, and the strategic response required will be different.